SUBJECTFoundations of Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is the disciplined process of examining information, reasoning carefully, identifying assumptions, evaluating evidence, and reaching justified conclusions.
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Prefer the whole picture first? See the Critical Thinking study guide — full lesson outline, key terms, and practice on one page.
Foundations of Critical Thinking — Lessons
- 1
What Is Critical Thinking?
Learn what is critical thinking? through clear explanations, examples, practical exercises, key takeaways, and a quiz.
12 min · beginner - 2
Claims, Evidence and Arguments
Separate a claim from the evidence offered for it, judge whether evidence is relevant, sufficient, and trustworthy, and rank it with the Evidence Ladder.
16 min · beginner - 3
Logic and Reasoning
Learn how arguments work — premises and conclusions, deductive, inductive, and abductive reasoning, and the difference between valid and sound arguments.
14 min · beginner - 4
Logical Fallacies
Spot nine common logical fallacies — straw man, ad hominem, false dilemma, slippery slope, circular reasoning, appeal to authority, appeal to emotion, hasty generalization, and post hoc.
14 min · beginner - 5
Cognitive Biases
Understand cognitive biases — heuristics, confirmation bias, anchoring, availability, hindsight, overconfidence, and the fundamental attribution error — and how to counter them.
14 min · beginner - 6
Correlation vs Causation
Two things moving together does not mean one causes the other. Learn to spot confounding variables, reverse causation, and coincidence — and what real causal evidence requires.
15 min · beginner - 7
Decision Making Under Uncertainty
Make better choices under uncertainty — risk vs uncertainty, expected outcomes, opportunity cost, decision fatigue, Bayesian thinking, and the Decision Framework.
16 min · intermediate - 8
Evaluating Information
How to judge a source: primary versus secondary, expertise versus incentive, lateral reading, and why emotionally charged content deserves more scrutiny rather than less.
15 min · beginner - 9
Problem Solving
Solve problems systematically with the Mega Maester DEFINE framework: Define, Examine, Find, Identify, Narrow, Evaluate.
15 min · intermediate - 10
Critical Thinking in Everyday Life
Apply critical thinking to AI, finance, health, relationships, and work. Adopt the Maester's Code and complete a real-world reasoning capstone.
16 min · intermediate
Modules in this subject
Foundations of Critical Thinking
10 lessons · ~6-7h
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Reasoning in the Real World
7 lessons · ~6-8h
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Logic and Argument
7 lessons · ~6-8h
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Thinking in Practice
7 lessons · ~6-8h
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How We Know
7 lessons · ~6-8h
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Paradoxes and Puzzles
7 lessons · ~6-8h
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Critical Thinking in the Age of AI
7 lessons · ~6-8h
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What you'll be able to do
- Think more logically.
- Evaluate evidence.
- Recognize cognitive biases.
- Detect logical fallacies.
- Distinguish correlation from causation.
- Judge the reliability of a source and recognise misinformation.
- Solve problems systematically.
- Make decisions under uncertainty.
- Apply structured reasoning to everyday life.
Concept map
How the core concepts in Critical Thinking relate to one another.
- Logicis part ofCritical Thinking
- Reasoningis part ofCritical Thinking
- Evidenceis part ofCritical Thinking
- Biasis part ofCritical Thinking
- Fallacyis part ofCritical Thinking
- Decision Makingis part ofCritical Thinking
- Problem Solvingis part ofCritical Thinking
- Reflectionis part ofCritical Thinking
- Reasoningrelates toLogic
- Argumentsis part ofLogic
- Fallacyrelates toArguments
- Biasrelates toDecision Making
- Riskis part ofDecision Making
- Uncertaintyis part ofDecision Making
- Probabilityrelates toUncertainty
- Causationrelates toCorrelation
- Correlationrelates toEvidence
- Source Evaluationis part ofEvidence
- Media Literacyrelates toSource Evaluation
- Critical Readingrelates toSource Evaluation
- Scientific Thinkingrelates toEvidence
- Root Cause Analysisis part ofProblem Solving
- Reflectionrelates toDecision Making
- Critical Thinkingapplies toArtificial Intelligence
- Critical Thinkingapplies toPsychology
- Critical Thinkingapplies toFinance
- Critical Thinkingapplies toBusiness
- Critical Thinkingapplies toEconomics
- Critical Thinkingapplies toComputer Science
- Critical Thinkingapplies toHistory
- Critical Thinkingapplies toBiology
- Confounding VariableexplainsCorrelation
- Reverse CausationexplainsCorrelation
- Spurious Correlationis aCorrelation
- Randomized Controlled TrialsupportsCausation
- Correlationcontrasts withCausation
- Primary SourcesupportsEvidence
- Secondary Sourcerelates toPrimary Source
- Lateral Readingis part ofSource Evaluation
- Misinformationapplies toCritical Thinking
- Disinformationcontrasts withMisinformation
Critical Thinking: frequently asked questions
- If two things happen together, does one cause the other?
- Not necessarily. Two things can move together through coincidence, reverse cause, or a hidden third factor influencing both. Correlation is a clue worth investigating, not proof. Before claiming cause, rule out confounding variables and check that the timing and a plausible mechanism actually line up.
- Does someone being confident mean they're right?
- No. Confidence reflects how a person feels, not how good their evidence is. People can be certain and wrong, while careful thinkers often express doubt. Judge a claim by its reasoning and evidence, not by the assurance with which it's delivered.
- Is a personal story good evidence for a general claim?
- A single story is weak evidence for a broad claim. It's vivid but unrepresentative, and it ignores all the cases that turned out differently. On the evidence ladder, anecdotes sit near the bottom, while replicated, peer-reviewed studies sit far above them.
- Should you always trust what an expert says?
- Experts are a strong starting point, not an infallible one. They can be mistaken, biased, or speaking outside their field. Weigh their track record, whether they're within their area of expertise, and whether other experts agree, rather than accepting authority automatically.
- If an argument contains a logical fallacy, is its conclusion automatically false?
- No. A fallacy means the reasoning fails to support the conclusion, not that the conclusion is false. A flawed argument can still land on a true claim by luck. Spotting a fallacy tells you to withhold agreement and seek better reasons, not to reject the claim outright.
- What's the difference between a valid argument and a true one?
- An argument is valid when its conclusion follows logically from its premises, whether or not those premises are true. It's sound only when it's valid and the premises are genuinely true. So valid reasoning built on false premises can still lead you to a false conclusion.
- What is confirmation bias and how does it affect thinking?
- Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek and notice evidence that fits what you already believe while overlooking what doesn't. It quietly makes weak positions feel strong. The remedy is deliberate: actively look for reasons you might be wrong and test your view against the best opposing evidence.